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CHAPTER 3
SPECIAL FORCES OPERATIONS
This chapter outlines six operational phases that under ideal conditions enable ARSOF to establish an HN organization capable of conducting independent self-sustaining operations with a high probability for long-term success. These phases were developed by ARSOF with HDO experience in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Namibia, Rwanda, Cambodia, and Laos. The chapter focuses on detailed mission planning factors within each of the six phases. Although SF planning is the primary focus, common CA and PSYOP planning factors are also included. Specific CA and PSYOP planning factors are in Chapters 4 and 5.
THEATER ASSESSMENT TEAM
To provide adequate time for planning the mission, conducting pre-mission training, and obtaining resources required to support a demining mission, ARSOF should be tasked at least 12 months before mission execution. Ideally, all ARSOF units supporting the mission are included in the CINC assessment.
The theater CINC assessment team determines the current situation—that is, the nature and extent of the mine and UXO problem within the HN. It identifies logistics and resource requirements and possible courses of action (COAs). The end state objective of this assessment team is to present a detailed course of action briefing to the theater CINC/SOC and upon approval provide a detailed operation plan (OPLAN) and planning guidance to military forces assisting in the humanitarian demining program.
Ideally, the assessment team consists of (but is not limited to)—
The theater CINC assessment team should conduct an HN assessment at least 12 to 18 months before the desired mission time frame. (See Appendix A.)It should task the mission no later than 12 months before execution to allow subordinate units time to prepare for the mission and to procure resources and materials. Subsequent to the assessment, representatives from the subordinate units should be selected to participate in the assessment. This simple step increases the supporting units’ understanding of the mission and greatly enhances mission success. When subordinate units cannot participate in the actual assessment, the team should focus on the following areas that affect long-range planning:
During the assessment, the pre-mission checklists at Appendix B should be completed and forwarded to the supporting units. Use of the checklists will help U.S. forces plan the mission and procure needed resources within the designated time frame. (See also Appendix C for equipment and demolitions summaries.)
PHASE 1 - PREDEPLOYMENT
Procedures for conducting demining mission analysis are generally the same as those for FID mission analysis. When conducting intelligence preparation of the battlespace (IPB), special emphasis is on intelligence gathering, training plan development, command and control (C2), force protection, and CA and PSYOP integration.
Planning demining activities involves coordination with various information and training sources. Appendix D provides a list of points of contact (POCs) helpful in operations planning.
Priorities for planning demining activities include—
Detachment Pre-Mission Training
Train-up requirements for detachment members and other personnel must be identified early in the predeployment mission-planning phase. Because of the enormous dangers in demining, the detachment must be thoroughly prepared and trained in demining/UXO operations. Commanders must make sure adequate resources and time are allocated for detachment train-up.
Train-up should include sending key detachment noncommissioned officers (NCOs) to Fort Belvoir, Fort Leonard Wood, and Harvey Point for specialized training. The NCOs should in turn teach the demining team the applied skills. The detachment should learn all the required skills and rehearse all the procedures before deployment.
Train-up of the demining team should cover (but is not limited to)—
Budget and Funding
As a matter of national policy, the United States provides training, equipment, supplies, contracted services, and funding to other nations under the authority of numerous federal programs. Specific funds under DOD Overseas Humanitarian Disaster Aid and Civic Assistance (OHDACA) appropriation (operation and maintenance [O&M]) are available to execute HDO. Initial HDO activities such as country assessments and "train the trainer" programs are funded with OHDACA. Subsequent funding to the HN to pay for equipment and support of personnel trained by the HN requires foreign military financing (FMF) provided by the DOS. This FMF funding occurs normally in the sustainment phases and is an area developed and managed at the DOD/DOS level, with input from the CINC’s HDO staff. It should be noted that OHDACA and FMF activities can be funded concurrently within the HN’s HDO program. Such funding is a coordinated effort that will be administered jointly between DOD and DOS.
The CINC HDO program manager provides an FY program to OASD: SO-LIC in the spring of each year. The program outlines the planned objectives for the coming year. Based on the analysis of these plans, O&M funding is provided to the theater commands to execute humanitarian demining projects. These O&M funds can be used to purchase goods and services normally authorized in this appropriation. Typically, the funds cover—but are not limited to—such expenses as travel, transportation, per diem, supplies, contracts, and equipment.
DOS plans and programs FMF, FMS, and the Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, De-Mining, and Related (NADR) Program accounts.
Until FY 97, DOS provided funding through the FMF account. In FY 97, the NADR
account was expanded to include HDO. These security assistance accounts are allocated to countries based on their proposed demining plan and recommendations from the IWG.
Planning considerations when working with funding include—
Equipment Acquisition
Acquisition of equipment for the DOD HDO may be through two separate means: OHDACA and FMF.
OHDACA. Congress has authorized DOD—with specific limitations—to procure and donate equipment to the HN for HDO. OASD: SO-LIC provides the specific limits allocated to each CINC’s HDO program. Procurement of HDO equipment is through traditional equipment procurement mechanisms and is limited to the ceiling dollar value legislated at the time. Currently, the limit is $100,000.00, but a dollar value is not the only guideline. Vehicles are generally procured through these services. Check with your local comptroller to validate any big ticket purchases. Equipment purchased with OHDACA funds to be donated to the HN must be itemized separately from equipment purchased to support U.S. military forces conducting "train the trainer" programs. Itemized lists must account for donated equipment and be reported to the CINC HDO office quarterly. The Defense Security Assistance Agency (DSAA) is not involved, as this process is separate from security assistance. Specific inquiries on DOD funding authorities should be directed to OASD: SO-LIC.
FMF. FMF is available through the DOS for certain foreign nations. By law, equipment or services procured using FMF are to be managed by the DSAA.
NOTE: Funding for the DOD Humanitarian Demining Program has been specifically authorized by Congress for humanitarian purposes. Activities and equipment initiated using DOD Humanitarian Assistance Program funds must support an approved interagency humanitarian mission. Consequently, monitoring checks and internal controls must be established to make sure DOD-provided equipment is primarily used by the HN for humanitarian purposes. Monitoring checks may be performed by organizations other than the DOD, such as the country team, NGOs, or contractors.
Accountability Instructions
Service procedures for accountability will be used for equipment requisitioned by U.S. forces as long as the equipment is under U.S. control. When possible, accountability for equipment to be transferred to HN control should be established separately to facilitate eventual transfer of accountability. Procedures vary for transfer of accountability to the HN.
Funding Restrictions
HDO program managers need to know the parameters in using each type of funding available. The program manager must be prepared to monitor all aspects of funding within the HDO organization. Every effort should be made to assure that there is clear authority to spend the money. Clarification of the use of funds can be obtained from OASD: SO-LIC. As stated earlier, OHDACA O&M funds cannot be used to purchase vehicles.
Equipping an HN with vehicles as part of a demining program is a special situation, practically necessitating the opening of an FMF case. This aspect should be planned and budgeted in advance since even more lead time is required than for other types of supplies.
Funding must be planned for HN communications system upgrades as needed. Equipment such as mine detectors that are purchased with OHDACA O&M funding can be donated to the HN. The $100,000-limit per item applies to all such funds. Demolition materials can be purchased using O&M funds.
Items acquired by FMF funds should not be shipped using OHDACA O&M funds. At the start of a program, shipping with OHDACA O&M funds may make good sense as an expedient measure. However, DSAA FMF funds should be used to acquire and transport items, thus preserving a clean division of responsibility.
The process for using FMF funds takes time and involves several organizations. The responsible agency is the DSAA, which must be notified of the requirement. Other participants include applicable DOS and DOD organizations. The FMF funding process takes about 90 to 120 days and results in the opening of an FMF case. The advantage of the process is that the DSAA routinely handles all aspects of acquiring, packing, and shipping material to foreign countries, acting in many respects like a contractor for the HDO program.
Working with the Corps of Engineers to arrange and manage construction contracts, the DSAA oversees the renovation of training facilities. Funds for renovations come from the FMF program. Advanced planning, therefore, is necessary to assure that the budget is sufficient to achieve the intended objectives. The checks and balances inherent in the process of opening an FMF case offer certain advantages. The process works, but it requires sufficient time.
Participation by the HDO team in the completion of an FMF-sponsored activity may be necessary as an operational expedient. If possible, clear lines of responsibility should be maintained. Clear and accurate requirements should be specified to the DSAA. The DSAA should, in turn, be allowed to complete its part of the mission, including taking responsibility for addressing any problems that may be encountered.
Humanitarian demining missions require functional support from the Theater J4/7-level organization. Official tasking should recognize this requirement.
Sealift is highly cost-effective, but due to the high visibility of HDO, airlift is preferred. A representative, preferably a logistician, should always be employed at each point of transfer of a load to handle the necessary movements or transshipments and to expedite the process.
Host Nation Standing Operating Procedure
An HN demining SOP must be established before deployment. The purpose of the SOP is to present in writing the daily tasks, procedures, and general routine for a demining platoon and company. Having an SOP is important for two reasons. First, it tells each deminer exactly what to expect each day, what tasks need to be accomplished, and how the tasks are to be performed. Second, the SOP provides a standard method for demining throughout the HN.
Although directive in nature, the SOP is a flexible document. It is a tool for training the demining platoon and for evaluating the performance of platoons operating in the field. The SOP is a specific, well-known standard. Enforcing these standards is the responsibility of the leaders—the commanders, platoon leaders, platoon sergeants, and section sergeants.
Detachment Predeployment Site Survey
The predeployment site survey (PDSS), conducted 3 to 6 months before deployment, should confirm your OPLAN and HN support agreements. Final adjustments should be made to the mission training plan at this time.
The PDSS should be made up of the NCOs and officers assigned to the main mission. CA and PSYOP personnel should be included on the PDSS. Personnel must be united in support of the mission, as discontinuity can disrupt the operation and create suspicion from the HN.
Deployment of Liaison
A liaison cell should be established during the PDSS or shortly thereafter. The LNO attends the PDSS and remains in-country to facilitate essential coordination. He should be attached to the Defense Attache Office (DAO) at the U.S. Embassy work-ing demining operations with the theater CINC/SOC staff. The LNO should act as the action officer for all demining activities and should not be tasked with any other duties. He should coordinate with HN agencies, the military, CINCs, contractors, and the Group. The LNO demonstrates U.S. commitment to the demining program and encourages action on the part of the HN. The LNO should work on country clearances, visa requirements, country fee waivers, custom waivers, and HN requirements for communications and weapons. The LNO should come from the supported SOC. If the SOC is unable to provide an LNO, the SF elements HQ (SFODB) should meet this requirement, thus allowing the team to remain intact throughout the 3- to 4-month training period. This arrangement also allows the SOC and SF element to rotate the LNOs if necessary.
Rules of Engagement
One of the lessons of recent military operations, particularly in nontraditional military missions, is that ROEs should give personnel assigned to a mission clear guidance for that mission. Policy makers and commanders must address ambiguous situations so that personnel who conduct humanitarian demining activities in an HN have clear instructions and guidance appropriate to the task. A key element toward this objective is the Embassy Threat and Procedures Briefing, which must be coordinated by the LNO or the PDSS team.
PHASE 2 - DEPLOYMENT
Because of the large amount of logistical support, a combination of Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) airlift and commercial aircraft is normally used to deploy a demining training team and all its equipment and resources. The deployment phase starts with the outloading sequence and ends when the training site and in-processing have been completed.
Customs
The LNO must work with HN personnel and their customs officials to resolve potential customs issues. He must coordinate with customs for waivers of inspections, when possible. Coordination must be made in the following areas:
Transportation
The LNO plans transportation for trainers, deminers, and resupply materials to the training and operations sites. Trainers will need reliable transportation for backside support of training and logistical resupply or support. They cannot rely on HN assets. Problems of maintenance, accountability, and fuel are training distracters; therefore, these items must be planned in detail before deployment. Additionally—
Training Site
The HN selects where the training sites will be located based upon national priorities. Because the training site will be a permanent site used by the HN to train soldiers long after the United States departs, careful planning must go into selecting and setting up the site.
During the initial assessment, the training site should be checked, and any problems with it negotiated with the HN for correction. If any renovations are required, they must be identified and completed before deployment of U.S. forces. Ideally, the LNO should have worked out any problems about the training site.
Other considerations in establishing a training site include—
HN Personnel Screening and In-Processing
All personnel identified by the HN for training should be screened and in-processed. The United States cannot require the HN to provide photos or medical records or dictate which soldiers will participate in demining training. The role of the United States is to help the HN establish a selection process that includes these procedures. Each trainee should be assessed from the beginning of training until the end. This procedure will help identify trainees to fill or promote into key leadership positions or to identify those to be removed from the program.
HN personnel should be medically screened. All medical data should be properly recorded, secured, and treated with confidentiality. Medics should check for communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, and any other sickness that would prevent class attendance. They should also examine for blindness, hearing loss, and physical disabilities that would cause safety hazards in a minefield. All trainees should be tested on their aptitude levels as well and be placed into areas within the demining program where they are most suited—for example, medical, engineer, or communications. Potential interpreters should be identified as well.
The in-processing of HN personnel should include taking photos for identification (ID) cards and assigning roster numbers. Approximately 45 to 55 HN personnel should be in-processed to come up with a platoon of about 31 deminers, after failure by some to meet the qualifying criteria. Proficient skills and demonstrated capability, not numbers or politics, determine acceptance.
Someone should be selected who will give sick students permission not to train and will determine how much class time may be missed before students are dropped from the training course. Students who fail to meet class attendance standards will not be certified and may be considered for retraining.
Cadre Assessment
U.S. trainers conduct an assessment to identify HN cadre. Cadre assessment involves a number of considerations:
Key Host Nation Personnel
Identification of key HN personnel should begin during the assessment, followed up by the LNO and continually pursued by the detachment upon deployment. Situations always arise where the support of HN personnel greatly enhances the detachment’s ability to resolve disputes and issues.
Key HN personnel may include those outside the established demining force structure, such as¾
PHASE 3 - TRAINING
During the training phase, all three ARSOF elements focus on executing the individual training programs.
Training Methodology
One of the goals of the humanitarian demining program is to establish a long-term, sustainable program that will help the HN develop the local infrastructure capable of training and sustaining its own in-country program. The program focuses on identifying and training HN personnel in leadership and program management, in mine awareness, and in the conduct, supervision, and instruction of demining operations and procedures.
To minimize long-term U.S. involvement and to make sure the HN is capable of sustaining operations over the long term, all training is conducted using the following "train the trainer" methodology:
Step 1 The demining team trains selected HN personnel to form a cadre of instructors and a base demining organization.
Step 2 The demining team mentors and monitors the HN cadre in training its own forces through one complete training cycle.
Step 3 The U.S. demining team assesses the HN-trained soldiers by monitoring the operational unit in day-to-day operations, while mentoring the HN cadre as it trains the second complete cycle of soldiers.
Time-Phased Training and Operational Concepts
Every demining operation is distinctly unique and must be planned to meet the mission objectives based upon HN capabilities. In situations where an organization is being established from the ground up, two systematic training approaches can be employed for better integration of the various elements of the demining organization and U.S. agencies that provide support.
Phased-Training Concept
The following sequence identifies a general training sequence in the time-phased concept:
Step 1 Identify and train the essential staff elements of the national demining HQ. This part of the organization can thus function and continue real world hands-on training during the establishment of the remaining organization.
Focus is on early mine awareness operations using themes that identify the organization and its objectives and that gain acceptance and support of the populace.
Consideration is given to training events that require a long-term training program, such as computers and possibly surveying and marking skills.
Step 2 Continue to train the national demining HQ. The historical research section, along with the marking and surveying teams, is established and trained to start the sometimes long process of identifying and bounding (marking) minefields. Mine awareness operations shift to in-cident reporting, threat recognition, and threat avoidance. This phase allows the NDO to identify and prioritize the mine threat. The NDO establishes a prioritized list of minefields to be cleared.
Step 3 Conduct primary training of the mine clearance elements and final training of the NDO and mine awareness elements.
Step 4 Conduct a 2- to 4-week evaluation and advisory phase to transition the HN to live operations.
Step 5 Incorporate specialized training in such areas as logistics operations, maintenance operations, and dog teams for further development of NDO.
Step 6 Conduct follow-on assessments and spot training.
Concurrent-Training Concept
The following sequence identifies a general training sequence in the concurrent-training concept. In situations where time permits, this method of training is recommended:
Step 1 Identify and train all members of the NDO in essential basic skills. This allows the NDO to develop an understanding of all the basic aspects of demining operations and to enhance cohesiveness among the different subordinate organizations.
Step 2 Based on basic training evaluations, identify personnel to fill the national HQ, mine awareness cell, mine clearance, and training school organizations.
Step 3 Train advanced skills within each element of the NDO.
Step 4 Execute collective training events.
Step 5 Conduct a 2- to 4-week evaluation phase to transition the HN to live operations.
Step 6 Incorporate specialized training in such areas as logistics operations, main-tenance operations, and dog teams for further development of the NDO.
Step 7 Conduct follow-on assessments and spot training.
The following information is based on the concurrent-training concept. It can be used in the phased-training concept as needed.
Programs of Instruction
Programs of instruction (POIs) are developed for all aspects of demining operations, at all levels of the demining organization. Appendix E is a sample POI summary for training demining personnel. It may be modified to fit a country’s specific mine threat and terrain.
Basic Skills
A 10- to 12-week POI is a typical POI for training basic skills, up to platoon level. All soldiers, including company-grade officers, are to attend basic skills training. As a screening device, the training serves to weed out the discipline, alcohol, and drug problems, thus removing unsuitable trainees as early as possible. Testing soldiers on their mechanical aptitude for using mine detectors will also help screen out individuals who may not be suitable for demining training.
Basic skills training covers (but is not limited to)—
Advanced Skills
A 2- to 4-week POI is typical for advanced skills training. Upon completion of basic skills training, selected HN trainees receive advanced training, based upon assessment of the individual’s aptitude.
Advanced skills training covers (but is not limited to)—
Team Skills
Team skills training follows the completion of basic skills training. It involves the training of the company or squad teams and their NCOs. The training should include a demonstration by the SFODA on proper techniques. The SFODA NCOs should work closely with the HN NCOs in supervising the teams.
Collective Skills
To establish a command post exercise (CPX), situational training exercise (STX), or field training exercise (FTX) training program, teach the HN cadre how to plan and execute operations from the national HQ down to the squad level. Conduct CPX/FTX at all levels, which reinforces integrated operations and gradually expands to full-scale demining planning and execution. Teach the cadre how to emplace and document a practice minefield to support collective skills training. This training can be used to teach patterns or techniques, to reinforce other principles such as accountability of equipment and training aids, and to provide feedback to the instructor.
Survey Skills
A precise minefield survey is the only way to identify the extent of the mine problem and accurately plan clearing activities. Survey teams specifically trained for surveying are with each regional demining HQ. They identify these areas and coordinate to have them prioritized. The survey is in two general phases, each serving different purposes.
Phase 1 General Survey of the Mine Situation. This survey should be the first step before making any demining plan. The purpose of the general survey is to identify the extent of the mine problem. The general survey helps plan the time, personnel, and other resources required to demine the targeted area. The surveyors for this phase need training in—
Phase 2 Technical Survey of the Mine Situation. This survey is a more detailed data collection exercise on each individual minefield to identify the exact boundaries of the minefields, mark them on the ground, prepare detailed operational maps, and allocate priorities in consultation with other related agencies. Experience is preferred in engineering, map making and reading, public relations, first aid, and demining. Surveyors should receive training in—
When establishing and training the survey teams, integrate the following measures:
HN Cadre Instructors
The training team working with HN leaders finalizes the student training assessments and identifies HN cadre instructors.
Training Aids
Training aids should include aids for U.S. train-up and for use by the HN. (See Appendix F.) Store the training aids used by a unit for train-up with the Group Engineers Office. These training aids should allow an SFODA to conduct rehearsals of classes in mines/UXOs and their neutralization. Plan to secure training aids during Phase 1 (Predeployment). U.S. Marine EOD can go into a country and deactivate live mines for use as training aids. Training aids of mines can also be purchased through the military training (MILTRA) company and through the training support center (TSC). The Fort Gordon TSC has demining training aids and can fabricate devices if given an example.
The following list identifies several categories of training aids required to conduct training.
PHASE 4 - OPERATIONS
Upon completion of the basic and advanced training programs, collective skills must be trained. Collective skills training brings the unit together as a team and establishes SOPs for conducting live operations. U.S. troops do not perform demining for other nations. U.S. Government personnel will not enter active minefields or be subjected to unreasonable risk.
WARNING Demining is an inherently hazardous operation that may lead to death or serious injury of the personnel involved. Demining requires extensive individual and collective training and supervision. |
Safety Guidelines
Safety is an important part of demining operations. Accidents can happen at any point during demining operations and may result in death. Accidents caused by carelessness decrease morale and mean the loss of trained deminers. Platoon and section leaders must make sure deminers in their platoon do not take unnecessary risks or engage in careless activity that might cost the deminer his life and his family its means of support. Everyone must make sure safety is maintained on and off the minefield. A well-trained platoon is a safe platoon. Platoon leaders need to supervise demining activities and have section leaders retrain deminers as necessary.
When possible, mines and UXO should be destroyed in place with demolitions. Exceptions to this rule are when the destruction of the mine in place will cause col-lateral damage to roads, bridges, or other infrastructures, hospitals, churches, or historic buildings and sites.
Modern mines often are manufactured with multiple antihandling devices. Those not manufactured with built-in devices can be emplaced with external ones. UXO can be booby trapped in a variety of ways.
Demining Equipment Safety
Demining equipment can cause injury by poking or cutting. Probes, saws, axes, shears, trowels, and other similar equipment should have sharp parts covered in storage, either in a case or cardboard covering. Keeping the equipment clean will ensure that it will work properly. Section and platoon leaders must make sure the equipment does not become items for horseplay.
Demolitions Safety
Demolitions safety during demining operations can be achieved in large part simply by including safety procedures in the operations SOPs. Safety is a primary responsibility for leaders in the NDO.
A charge is defined as "the total quantity of bulk explosives concentrated at a single point, but not the total explosive incorporated at different points on a firing circuit, which itself is capable of detonating simultaneously." A number of charges can make up a firing circuit.
All operations involving the firing of a charge of explosive, no matter how small, must be authorized by the platoon leader. The platoon leader authorizing the firing ensures that it is carried out under the supervision of a qualified person.
Detonators contain the most sensitive explosive in the detonating train and must be treated with the greatest care at all times. Avoid handling the detonator tube unless absolutely necessary.
Observe the following minimum safety distances from explosive detonations (refer to field manual [FM] 5-250):
NOTE: When several charges are fired by one means of initiation, observe the safety distance of the largest single charge (or munitions being destroyed).
Take the following precautions before any range practice or demining demolitions operations:
Enforce strict control procedures when issuing explosives and accessories to make sure accountability is maintained during all phases of operations. The platoon leader ensures that a record of explosives issued is maintained, as well as a record of all explosives returned. At the end of each day, turn in these records to the supply official. At the demolition site, the platoon sergeant with adequate assistance is in charge of explosives and accessories. He determines and controls the explosive issues and ensures all issues are recorded. He ensures that the remaining explosives are stored in a safe place before any charges are fired. To prevent loss or theft of explosives and accessories, maintain security at all times.
The platoon leader or sergeant in charge of the movement of explosives and the drivers of the vehicles carrying explosives are responsible for the observance of the following safety guidelines:
NOTE: Never carry a mixed load of general stores and explosives.
Store explosives neatly and carefully. Explosives become unserviceable through damp- ness, heat, and careless handling. When storing explosives, keep the following factors in mind:
WARNING "No Smoking" signs are to be clearly displayed on all visible approaches to the store. No person shall smoke within 50 meters of an explosive storehouse. |
Mine Characteristics
The training team must know the specific mine threat in its area of responsibility (AOR). Generally, the mine threat primarily consists of hand-emplaced blast, fragmentation, and chemical mines. Antivehicular or AT mines may also be present. All mines, whether manufactured or improvised, are activated by pressure or tension release (trip-wire devices) or are command detonated. Manufactured mines are usually used by a regular or conventional force. Irregular forces may use all improvised mines or a combination of mines that are improvised and manufactured.
AP mines present a major threat in many environments. They are small and easy to emplace. In emerging and developing countries, most people walk or use bicycles or animals for transportation.
AP mines usually cause death or injury by blast or fragmentation or by a combination. AP mines may also be chemical.
Various manufactured and improvised mines have been employed in numerous countries. Personnel conducting demining activities must be prepared to encounter manufactured mines from the former Warsaw Pact, nonaligned, and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) nations, including U.S.-made mines acquired through capture or on the international black market. Forces openly or covertly supported by other countries frequently receive manufactured mines, while irregular forces may depend on their ability to improvise mines and explosives. Production techniques and lessons learned by one group are often passed to others through international terrorist networks.
NOTE: Any improvised mine is the product of the resources available to the group that made it. Therefore, no two mines may be the same in their configuration or materials.
Mine Components
A basic mine, whether manufactured or improvised, consists of an outer casing and the following three major components that cause the mine to explode:
Triggering Devices
Devices used to trigger mines typically fall into three basic categories:
Triggering devices can vary significantly in their methods of operation, complexity, reliability, and safety features. Although many different types of manufactured and improvised triggering devices exist, most fit into one of the three basic categories. Some devices are activated by pressure, when an individual steps on the device closing the switch or breaking a chemical vial; some by pulling, when an individual walks into a trip wire; and others by the releasing pressure or tension.
Manufactured devices are usually mechanical and employ spring-loaded firing pins that release to strike the detonator. Improvised devices make effective use of available items and materials.
Detonating Devices
Every mine requires a device to detonate the main explosive. The detonating device has relatively low explosive power but is highly sensitive. It transfers its own explosive force to the main explosive charge. Three types of devices are commonly used in mines: electric blasting caps, nonelectric blasting caps, and percussion caps.
Explosive Charge
An improved improvised initiation device seen in Central America employs a flash bulb surrounded by magnesium with a hole drilled in the top of the bulb and the bulb filled with black powder. The flash bulb is wired into an open electrical circuit. When the electrical circuit is closed, the filament wires in the flash bulb heat up and, in turn, ignite the black powder and magnesium, causing the mine to detonate.
Sustained Operations
This section on sustained operations outlines the basic demining methodology employed by the NDO to identify and eliminate a specific minefield threat. The methodology consists of the following steps:
NOTE: This methodology applies to the neutralization of both UXOs and land mines placed at ground level to a depth of approximately 2 feet.
Step 1 Bound the Minefield. Survey and marking teams use several dif-ferent techniques to locate and mark the perimeter of a minefield. Using a detailed, specific minefield survey report, the team identifies the location of a minefield, specific details on how it is bounded, and any technical data on the types of mines found by the survey teams. The report is passed to the regional HQ, which is responsible for clearing the field.
Step 2 Plan the Mission. Regional HQ and mine companies plan the mission and issue an operations order. Orders pass the necessary information quickly and concisely to all deminers. If a platoon is going to a new location to begin demining, the platoon leader briefs the full platoon order. If the platoon is merely continuing operations at a minefield, the platoon leader issues a fragmentary order (FRAGO) to the section sergeants with updated information and progress. (See Appendix G for a sample campaign plan and product action work sheet.)
Step 3 Detect and Verify Mine Locations. Demining platoons detect and verify exact locations of mines within the bounded area. Systems for detecting mines and UXOs include the use of probes, metal detectors, dogs, infrared sensors, radar systems, and mine rollers. See Appendix H for detailed sample drills that train collective tasks for detection and verification procedures. Tailor the following drills to fit the situation and terrain you will encounter:
Step 4 Mark the Mines. Demining platoons mark mine locations for eventual destruction using marking tape, mine bonnets, light sticks, commercial fencing or wire, or paint with sprayer. The use of insecticide sprayers as markers has been tremendously effective. The sprayers are available at hardware stores. They are normally lightweight plastic and can be used with latex paint (water-based) mixed with water at a ratio of 1 to 4. Use a white paint to mark lanes and possible mines. This technique is an effective means of preventing the theft of mine markers.
Step 5 Neutralize the Mines. Demining platoons destroy mines in place. A technique used frequently is to move through the target area detect- ing and marking mine locations in one movement followed by the destruction of all mines at one specific time. Methods to neutralize mines or UXOs include using demolition charges, bore charges, armor kits for bulldozers, full mine rakes and plows, full- or mini-sized flails, track-width mine plows, rollers, and grapnel hooks. Because U.S. forces are restricted from destroying mines/UXOs in place, the removal of any large UXOs (500- to 1,000-pound bombs) that pose a threat or cause unnecessary hardship and damage to villages and economies must be coordinated with the theater SOC. Minimum safety distances can also cause problems with the destruction-in-place restriction. Approval must come from the theater CINC/SOC to teach pull techniques or to provide contractor support in executing mine removal.
Step 6 Proof Mine Clearance. Demining platoons recheck the target area to verify that all the mines have been detected and destroyed before reporting to the NDO. Verify all cleared areas using the mine detector as follows:
NOTE: Using standard demining procedures, clear any lane that still has unremoved metal objects.
Step 7 Report Minefield Data. Specific minefield information goes to the NDO HQ for historical and research purposes. The demining company submits the following reports through the NDO chain of command:
Step 8 Reclaim the Land. The NDO turns the area back to the indigenous populace for agricultural or economic purposes.
Host Nation Employment Techniques
The HN demining platoon must have a standardized method for employing its personnel to demine a designated AOR. Basic employment of the demining platoon consists of tactics and techniques to conduct mission planning, lay out the demining mission sup-port site, approach the minefield, deploy the platoon, and withdraw the platoon.
Mission Planning
Mission planning is conducted based on U.S. operational mission planning techniques and troop-leading procedures adapted for the HN and HDO.
Demining Mission Support Site
When demining operations are to occur in a new area, the company commander conducts an initial estimate of how many platoons he will need on the minefield.
The company commander then conducts a reconnaissance of the new area with the platoon leaders who will be working at the site. The reconnaissance verifies the boundaries of the minefield, ensuring the survey teams have fenced the targeted field 35 meters from the outermost mines IAW standardization agreement (STANAG) 2036 (Minefield Laying, Marking, and Recording) and FM 20-32. It establishes the first sectors of work for each platoon and the locations of parking areas, accommodations area (if required), rest or safe area, storage area, explosives storage area, first aid point, control point, and lanes connecting these locations. Locate these areas outside the boundary of the minefield and mark them with mine-marking tape. Commanders should choose locations that are fairly close to one another and are suitable for explosive storage, keeping adequate safety perimeters. The areas must be large enough to accommodate the number of platoons needed to work the site. The designated safe area is the point of entry for deminers into a live minefield.
Approach to Minefield
Platoons move to the safe area in their given order of movement by vehicle or by foot. (NOTE: When moving by foot from the formation or parking area to the safe area, people will move in a single file for safety purposes.)
At the safe area, stake out and mark a 1-meter by 2-meter area free from all metal. Test and recheck all platoon metal detectors in this metal-free area. If operating in an area where the soil has a high metallic content, the 5-centimeter (cm) test piece may be placed in the ground in a cleared area and all detectors tested using the buried block before departing the safe area.
Before the platoon departs the safe area, a designated mine detector from each section sweeps all marked paths to the edge of the minefield, marked paths leading to individual team areas, and any unfinished lanes cleared the day before. As required, the designated mine detectors replace mine-marking tape and signs that are missing along swept areas. Only after this procedure is completed should the entire platoon move forward to demine.
Assign one team each morning to clear and check the entire perimeter of the minefield for downed tape and missing markers. The designated mine detector makes sure the detector is working properly, while the prober replaces broken tape and missing marker signs.
Platoon Employment
The platoon employment activities highlighted outline the basic concepts for deploy- ment and withdrawal of the mine clearance element.
Establish Safe Lanes
To create a secure point for the demining teams to begin probing and detecting for mines, establish safe lanes at the leading edge of live minefields. Commanders first establish safe lanes using the same steps as the mine clearance lanes. After the lanes are set up, mine detector personnel check them at the beginning of each day.
Safe lanes are to be a minimum of 1 meter wide and free of any obstructions (trees or large rocks). Within the uncleared area, mark safe lanes on both sides with marking tape attached to stakes placed into the ground to secure the tape in place. Outside the minefield, use short wooden stakes to mark stores, parking areas, rest areas, first aid points, control points, and administrative areas.
During the initial survey, mark mined area perimeters at least 15 meters from the outermost mines in the field with elevated wire (ankle and waist high) and mine signs. Use short white stakes in the ground to mark the lanes and key areas (stores, rest areas, parking areas). Also mark the actual perimeter of the minefield where the deminers are working; use staked barbed wire and mine-warning signs between the stakes or pickets in the ground about every 15 meters. As work progresses on the minefield, these markings should also move into newly cleared areas to reflect the actual perimeter of the mined area. Use red and white painted poles to mark the corners of the mined areas. To eliminate confusion, use only these markings.
Working safe lanes should be at least 1.5 meters long so that a deminer can safely get into the prone position for probing. Team and section safe areas will be at least 2 meters long and 1.5 meters wide. Each team's safe area will have a 0.5-meter-square area to store fragments. Also, each platoon will have a 1- by 1-meter area staked off to store fragments and a 2- by 2-meter area for brush and vegetation. Locate this area near the control point.
No safe lane or safe area will be closer than 20 meters to any other safe lane, working safe lane, or safe area.
Enter the Minefield
Section sergeants inform the platoon leader when their sections are ready to begin demining operations. The platoon begins demining as follows:
NOTE: The terms "prober" and "detector" refer to individuals assigned to these positions.
Withdrawal from Minefield
Before withdrawing from the minefield, make sure all mines that have been detected and marked are destroyed. Normally, it is best to detect and mark mines as the deminers work their lanes, waiting until the end of the day to destroy all mines simultaneously.
Follow the proper sequence of events when destroying land mines to ensure accountability and safety for deminers within the minefield. Usually, demolition occurs after the section sergeant fills out the land mine report. To minimize the risk to personnel, the following sequence of events should occur:
NOTE: See Appendix H for sample drills to train collective tasks for neutralization procedures.
Upon returning to the safe area and before departing the area, the platoon leader and sergeant must—
Medical Evacuation
Complete medical evacuation of injured deminers as quickly as possible, while ensuring that no other personnel are injured during the evacuation. Medical evacuation follows a two-phase process:
Phase 1 Remove the casualty from the minefield by—
Phase 2 Move the casualty from the minefield to the nearest hospital, as follows:
NOTE: Coordinate through the U.S. Embassy for MEDEVAC of U.S. personnel.
Transition to Live Operations
Transition the HN demining organization from the training phase into planning live operations, using simple, easy to execute confidence targets while lowering U.S. training involvement and increasing the HN-led involvement. (NOTE: Under ROEs, U.S. personnel are prohibited from entering active minefields or from conducting live operations.) Include neutralization techniques of UXOs in the first missions, as they can be executed on a smaller scale with greater probability of success. The confidence targets should have limited vegetation and minimal metal trash to ensure good signals for the metal detectors.
Uniform for Demining
No deminer may enter a minefield without the proper uniform. Before moving forward of the team's safe area, deminers should be in the designated uniform, including—
Vehicles
Mine-resistant vehicles can have far-reaching applications in humanitarian demining. Survey teams can benefit from their use, whether conducting historical research on mined areas or actually attempting to locate minefield boundaries. Emergency clearance teams entering a mined area for the first time would likewise benefit. Vehicles used for medical evacuation of mine casualties should also be protected from mines, as should vehicles transporting deminers to work sites.
Equipment
WARNING The use of detectors in wet conditions is hazardous, as these conditions change the sensitivity of detectors. |
Current handheld metal detectors do not operate in wet soil. The NDO should target geographical areas during the dry seasons, then rotate to other parts of the country during wet seasons. Detectors also have difficulty detecting low-metallic mines in very dry soil because these mines present the same dielectric contrast as a very dry soil. Mine detectors can detect a dielectric contrast between the soil and the mine, thus causing them to alarm and warn the operator. However, these systems have difficulty in distinguishing mines from surface or near-surface ground clutter under any conditions. Engineers and scientists are attempting to solve this problem, but no solution is foreseen in the near future. Vapor detectors require sufficient amounts of the vapor in the air or soil for the sensor to detect. Heavy wind or rain diminishes the sensor’s ability to locate vapors.
Consider the following additional factors when using detectors:
CAUTION Mine detection is very tedious and stressful. Set a time limit and adhere to it. As a rule, a team should operate for no more than 1 hour under ideal conditions before taking an extended break. Most of our allies and NGOs use a 20- to 30-minute time limit. |
Dog Teams
In the Vietnam conflict, the U.S. Army used scout dogs in lead elements during ground movements. Their mission was to alert our forces to enemy soldiers or a potential ambush. The main items the dogs were trained to "alert on" were mines, booby traps, and other explosive devices. The dogs provided an extremely valuable service and consistently gave sufficient notice so explosives and other enemy threats were countered. Scout dogs were successful in finding mines in Vietnam because the explosives in the mines gave off odors undetectable to humans yet detectable to the dogs. This unique ability of dogs has led to their being used in humanitarian demining.
The use of dogs integrated with indigenous handlers and local deminers has increased the safety and speed of demining operations. Dogs are trained to detect explosives and trip wires for booby traps using their acute sense of smell and hearing. Once the dogs have pinpointed the location of an explosive device, deminers use standard procedures to neutralize the device. Dog training normally consists of two 8- to 10-week training sessions conducted before execution of demining operations. The second phase is to bond and train the dog with a local handler. The report of the "Symposium on Antipersonnel Mines," sponsored 21-23 April 1993 by the International Committee of the Red Cross, lists several pros and cons for the use of dogs in demining operations.
Pros
Cons
Perhaps the task most suited to the use of dogs is the initial survey of an area or a route. This role is similar to the one scout dogs perform in military operations. Dogs can be most effective in finding and bounding the threat. They are also effective in performing quality control or in "proofing" an area after clearance operations have been conducted.
Dogs have been used extensively in Afghanistan. The original operation there was funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development, which contracted with a consulting corporation to provide services and to establish a self-sustaining operation. The Mine Detection Dog Center (MDDC), established by the consulting corporation, is now an independent Afghan NGO operating under the umbrella of the United Nations Observer Controllers Humanitarian Assistance (UNOCHA) mine clearance program.
PHASE 5 - REDEPLOYMENT AND EVALUATION
Before the demining training team redeploys, several key events must be completed to ensure an effective transition from short-term military objectives to long-term sustainment objectives.
Equipment Handoff
Large quantities of equipment and resources are brought into the country to conduct training and to provide self-sustainment for approximately 1 year. To make sure this material stays in the demining channels, it must be hand receipted to the NDO, under the supervision of the U.S. country team or program manager. A 100 percent inventory of detachment equipment must be completed before redeployment to make sure no errors have been made in transferring equipment to the HN.
Leadership Transition
Upon completion of the training program, the NDO leadership relies heavily upon the U.S. demining training team. A clear transition from the training environment to the leadership and execution of day-to-day operations must be made. The HN demining leadership must be introduced to the U.S. POCs who will monitor the long-term sustainment objectives.
Post-Mission Evaluation
Ideally, the detachment will have an opportunity to monitor the NDO for approximately 2 weeks before redeployment. In either case, the detachment should conclude a post-mission evaluation identifying known organizational, training, and logistical shortfalls. The evaluation should also include recommendations for future training or support.
NOTE: During redeployment, also address the customs planning requirements described in Phase 2 (Deployment) of this chapter.
PHASE 6 - SUSTAINMENT
The theater command and the U.S. country team are responsible for the integration of the HN NDO into the full spectrum of available programs and sustainment. These programs should include military, NGO, and UN programs capable of providing assistance for long-term sustainment.
Upon completion of the short-term military objectives to establish a base organization capable of long-term, self-sustaining demining operations, the theater program manager or country team must transition a country to long-term sustainment objectives. The objectives should encompass follow-on training, logistics, resupply, and the integration of other theater programs that will sustain the demining effort within the country.
Logistics
HDO is an OHDACA-funded security assistance program. The demining training team must have a dedicated logistics planner working with the theater command and the SOSCOM/SOTSE staff. The demining training team personnel must have technical expertise and analysis skills to identify appropriate equipment, have the supply and acquisition skills to get the property, and have the transportation experience to deliver the equipment to the HN. OHDACA-funded security assistance requires a vertical monopoly—a self-contained organization to acquire, assemble, pack, ship, and deliver HDO material without assistance from outside agencies. Total financial accountability for all equipment is absolutely fundamental. Define early in the HDO program the transfer and accountability process for equipment destined for the HN, including the HN’s intended use and follow-on transfer obligations. This transfer and accountability process must be in writing and negotiated with the HN before beginning the acquisition process. Logistics personnel must maintain presence with the HN. Be prepared to teach the HN equipment accountability.
Consider the following when establishing logistics support and working logistics issues:
Supply Management
Developing and maintaining HN personnel in supply management are critical to long-term success within the sustainment phase, primarily because of the—
Maintenance Support
During the initial phases of establishing an HN demining organization, numerous items of equipment and in some cases vehicles are provided to a country to develop a base from which a country can conduct demining operations. Maintenance training operations on the equipment and the resupply of maintenance parts must be addressed during the sustainment phase. The primary focus is on communications equipment, vehicles, and electronic demining equipment.
Stay-Behind Liaison
Continual relations provide continuity and build trust with the HN. Constant presence exerts a positive influence on HN professionalism.
Follow-On Assessments
The theater command, the DAO, and the U.S. Embassy are responsible for monitoring the status of the demining program. The theater CINC program manager must conduct follow-on assessment evaluations in conjunction with the ARSOF that conducted the training. This step establishes additional resources and any requirement for additional reinforcement training that would help the HN continue its demin- ing program.
Follow-On Training
Based on the follow-on assessments, additional training can be conducted to eliminate identified training weaknesses in an HN’s program. U.S. forces, NGOs, and PVOs can be used to conduct this training.